Biología 2º de Bachillerato en inglés

A la espera de la nueva ley de educación que cambiará los currículos de las materias de Biología y Geología (supongo que poco, pero algo cambiará) he subido una traducción de los apuntes de Biología de 2º de Bachillerato en inglés.

Es una traducción hecha de forma semiautomática y tendrá bastantes errores.

Un saludo

• Biology 2nd Baccalaureate

• 1. Bioelements and biomolecules. Water and mineral salts.
  • 1.1. Chemical bonds in biology.
    • 1.1.1. Intramolecular bonds.
      • 1.1.1.1. Covalent bond.
      • 1.1.1.2. Ionic bond.
    • 1.1.2. Intermolecular bonds.
      • 1.1.2.1. Var der Waals forces.
      • 1.1.2.2. Hydrogen bonds.
  • 1.2. The chemical basics of life: inorganic and organic components.
    • 1.2.1. Primary bioelements.
    • 1.2.2. Secondary bioelements.
    • 1.2.3. Trace elements.
  • 1.3. The immediate principles or biomolecules.
    • 1.3.1. Water.
      • 1.3.1.1. Chemical structure of water.
      • 1.3.1.2. Propierties and functions of water.
    • 1.3.2. Mineral salts.
      • 1.3.2.1. Functions of salts in solution.
      • 1.3.2.2. Colloidal solutions and dispersions.
      • 1.3.2.3. Propierties of colloidal dispersions.
      • 1.3.2.4. Diffusion, osmosis and dialysis.
        • 1.3.2.4.1. Diffusion.
        • 1.3.2.4.2. Osmosis.
        • 1.3.2.4.3. Dialysis.
  • 1.4. Bibliography.
• 2. Glucides.
  • 2.1. Glucid concept.
  • 2.2. Classification of carbohydrates.
  • 2.3. Monosaccharides.
    • 2.3.1. Trios.
    • 2.3.2. Tetroses.
    • 2.3.3. Pentoses.
      • 2.3.3.1. Monosaccharide cyclization.
    • 2.3.4. Hexoses.
  • 2.4. The N-glucosidic and O-glucosidic bonds.
    • 2.4.1. Substances derived from monosaccharides.
  • 2.5. Disaccharides.
  • 2.6. Polysaccharides.
    • 2.6.1. Homopolysaccharides.
      • 2.6.1.1. Reserve homopolysaccharides.
      • 2.6.1.2. Structural homopolysaccharides.
    • 2.6.2. Heteropolysaccharides.
    • 2.6.3. Heterosides.
  • 2.7. General functions of glucides.
  • 2.8. Bibliography.
• 3. Lipids.
  • 3.1. Lipid concept.
  • 3.2. Classification of lipids.
    • 3.2.1. Fatty acids.
      • 3.2.1.1. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
      • 3.2.1.2. Chemical propierties of fatty acids.
      • 3.2.1.3. Physical propierties of fatty acids.
      • 3.2.1.4. Fatty acid functions.
    • 3.2.2. Saponifiable lipids or with fatty acids.
      • 3.2.2.1. Simple lipids.
        • 3.2.2.1.1. Acylglycerides.
        • 3.2.2.1.2. Cerids.
      • 3.2.2.2. Complex lipids.
        • 3.2.2.2.1. Phospholipids.
        • 3.2.2.2.2. Glycolipids.
    • 3.2.3. Unsaponiable lipids or without fatty acids.
  • 3.3. Lipid functions.
  • 3.4. Bibliography.
• 4. Proteins.
  • 4.1. Introduction to proteins.
  • 4.2. Amino acids.
    • 4.2.1. Clasiification of amino acids.
    • 4.2.2. Properties of amino acids.
  • 4.3. The peptide bond.
  • 4.4. Protein.
    • 4.4.1. Protein structure.
      • 4.4.1.1. Primary structure of proteins.
      • 4.4.1.2. Secondary structure os proteins.
      • 4.4.1.3. Tertiary structure of proteins.
      • 4.4.1.4. Quaternary structure of proteins.
    • 4.4.2. Protein properties.
    • 4.4.3. Classificacion of proteins.
      • 4.4.3.1. Holoproteins.
      • 4.4.3.2. Heteroproteins.
    • 4.4.4. Protein functions.
  • 4.5. Enzymes.
    • 4.5.1. Structure os enzymes.
    • 4.5.2. The active center of enzymes.
    • 4.5.3. General mechanism os enzime catalysis.
    • 4.5.4. Regulation of enzyme activity.
    • 4.5.5. Allosteric enzymes.
    • 4.5.6. Nomenclature and classification of enzymes.
  • 4.6. The vitamins.
    • 4.6.1. Fat-soluble vitamins.
    • 4.6.2. Water soluble vitamins.
  • 4.7. Bibliography.
• 5. Nucleotides and nucleic acids.
  • 5.1. The chemical composition of nucleic acids.
    • 5.1.1. Components of nucleic acids.
    • 5.1.2. Concept, types and funcions of nucleic acids.
    • 5.1.3. Nucleosides.
    • 5.1.4. Nucleotides.
      • 5.1.4.1. Nucleotide functions.
    • 5.1.5. Nucleic acids.
  • 5.2. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
    • 5.2.1. DNA structure.
      • 5.2.1.1. Primary structure of DNA.
      • 5.2.1.2. Secondary structure of DNA.
      • 5.2.1.3. Tertiary structure of DNA.
        • 5.2.1.3.1. Tertiary structure of DNA in prokaryotes.
        • 5.2.1.3.2. Tertiary structure of DNA in eukariotes.
      • 5.2.1.4. Quaternary structure of DNA.
    • 5.2.2. DNA types.
    • 5.2.3. Genetic material: chromatin and chromosomes.
      • 5.2.3.1. Karyotype and karyogram.
  • 5.3. Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
    • 5.3.1. RNA types.
      • 5.3.1.1. Transfer RNA.
      • 5.3.1.2. Messenger RNA.
      • 5.3.1.3. Ribosomal RNA.
      • 5.3.1.4. Nucleolar RNA.
      • 5.3.1.5. Small nuclear RNA.
    • 5.3.2. Functions of ribonucleic acids.
  • 5.4. Bibliography.
• 6. Cell morphology.
  • 6.1. Cell concept.
    • 6.1.1. Cell history.
    • 6.1.2. Cell theory.
  • 6.2. Levels of cellular organization.
    • 6.2.1. General characteristics of cells.
    • 6.2.2. Prokaryotic cells.
      • 6.2.2.1. Prokaryotic cell morphology.
      • 6.2.2.2. Structure of prokariotes.
      • 6.2.2.2.1. Bacterial capsule.
      • 6.2.2.2.2. Bacterial wall.
      • 6.2.2.2.3. Plasma membrane.
      • 6.2.2.2.4. Cytoplasm - Ribosomes - Inclusions.
      • 6.2.2.2.5. Bacterial DNA.
      • 6.2.2.2.6. Bacterial appendages.
    • 6.2.2.3. Bacteria physiology.
  • 6.2.3. Eukariotic cells.
    • 6.2.3.1. Animal and plant cell.
      • 6.2.3.1.1. Animal eukaryotic cell.
      • 6.2.3.1.2. Plant eukariotic cell.
    • 6.2.3.2. Cell evolution: endosymbiont theory.
  • 6.3. Size, shape and quantity.
  • 6.4. The plasma membrane.
  • 6.4.1. Chemical composition of the membrane.
  • 6.4.2. The structure of the membrane. The fluid mosaic model.
  • 6.4.3. Functions of the plasma membrane.
  • 6.4.4. Transport across the membrane.
    • 6.4.4.1. Small molecule transport.
    • 6.4.4.2. Macromolecule transport.
  • 6.4.5. Plasma membrane differentiations.
  • 6.5. The cell wall of plant cells.
    • 6.5.1. Chemical composition or the cell wall.
    • 6.5.2. Cell wall structure.
    • 6.5.3. Cell wall differentiations.
    • 6.5.4. Cell wall functions.
  • 6.6. Extracellular matrix or glucocalyx.
  • 6.7. Cytosol or hyaloplasm.
  • 6.8. The cytoskeleton.
    • 6.8.1. Microfilaments or actin filaments.
    • 6.8.2. Intermediate filaments.
    • 6.8.3. Microtubules.
  • 6.9. Cell membrane and organelle systems.
    • 6.9.1. Membrane systems.
      • 6.9.1.1. The endoplasmic reticulum.
      • 6.9.1.2. Golgi apparatus.
    • 6.9.2. Cell organelles.
      • 6.9.2.1. Lysosomes.
      • 6.9.2.2. Peroxisomes.
      • 6.9.2.3. Vacuoles.
      • 6.9.2.4. Mitochondria.
        • 6.9.2.4.1. Functions of the mitochondria.
      • 6.9.2.5. Plastids.
        • 6.9.2.5.1. Chloroplasts.
      • 6.9.2.6. Ribosomes.
      • 6.9.2.7. Centrosome.
      • 6.9.2.8. Cilia and flagella.
  • 6.10. Celli motility.
  • 6.11. The cell nucleus.
    • 6.11.1. Characteristics of the cell nucleus.
    • 6.11.2. The interphase nucleus.
    • 6.11.3. The mitotic nucleus or nucleus in division.
  • 6.12. Bibliography.
• 7. Metabolism.
  • 7.1. Metabolism.
    • 7.1.1. Energetic aspects of cellular chemical reactions.
  • 7.2. Catabolism.
    • 7.2.1. Catabolism and obtaining energy.
    • 7.2.2. Carbohydrate catabolism.
      • 7.2.2.1. Glycolysis.
      • 7.2.2.2. Cellular respiration.
        • 7.2.2.2.1. Oxidative decarboxylation.
        • 7.2.2.2.2. Krebs cycle.
        • 7.2.2.2.3. Electron transport chain.
        • 7.2.2.2.4. Energy balance of cellular respiration.
      • 7.2.2.3. Fermentations.
        • 7.2.2.3.1. Alcoholic or ethyl fermentation.
        • 7.2.2.3.2. Lactic fermentacion.
        • 7.2.2.3.3. Other types of fermentations.
  • 7.3. Anabolism.
    • 7.3.1. Autotrophic anabolism.
    • 7.3.2. Photosynthesis.
      • 7.3.2.1. Photochemical or light phase.
        • 7.3.2.1.1. Photosystems.
        • 7.3.2.1.2. Photophosphorylation.
          • 7.3.2.1.2.1. Acyclic photophosphorylation.
          • 7.3.2.1.2.2. Cyclic photophosphorylation.
      • 7.3.2.2. Biosynthetic or dark phase.
      • 7.3.2.3. Factors influencing photosynthesis.
      • 7.3.2.4. Products of photosynthesis.
    • 7.3.3. Chemosynthesis.
  • 7.4. Biblography.
• 8. Cell reproduction.
  • 8.1. The cell cycle.
    • 8.1.1. Interphase.
    • 8.1.2. Cellular division.
  • 8.2. Cellular division.
    • 8.2.1. Mitosis.
      • 8.2.1.1. Prophase.
      • 8.2.1.2. Metaphase.
      • 8.2.1.3. Anaphase.
      • 8.2.1.4. Telophase.
      • 8.2.1.5. Cytokinesis.
      • 8.2.1.6. More on mitosis.
    • 8.2.2. Meiosis.
      • 8.2.2.1. Meiosis I.
      • 8.2.2.2. Meiosis II.
    • 8.2.3. Meiosis and sexual reproduction.
    • 8.2.4. Meiosis and life cycle.
    • 8.2.5. Biological importance of meiosis.
  • 8.3. Differences and similarities between mitosis and meiosis.
  • 8.4. Bibliography.
• 9. Classical genetics.
  • 9.1. Genetics basics.
  • 9.2. Mendelian genetics.
    • 9.2.1. The method.
    • 9.2.2. Mendel´s Laws.
      • 9.2.2.1. Mendel´s first law or principle of uniformity in the first generation.
      • 9.2.2.2. Mendel´s second law or principle of segregation.
        • 9.2.2.2.1. Backcross and test crossover.
      • 9.2.2.3. Mendel´s third law or principle of independent combination.
  • 9.3. Gene interaction.
    • 9.3.1. Gene interaction between allelic genes.
    • 9.3.2. Gene interaction between non-allelic genes that influence for the same trait.
  • 9.4. Chromosomal thory of heredity.
  • 9.5. Ligation and recombination.
  • 9.6. Complex mendelism.
    • 9.6.1. Multiple allelism.
      • 9.6.1.1. Lethal genes.
    • 9.6.2. Pleiotropy.
    • 9.6.3. Expressiveness and genetic penetrance.
  • 9.7. Sex-linked inheritance.
    • 9.7.1. Y-linked inheritance.
    • 9.7.2. X-linked inheritance.
  • 9.8. Heredity influenced by sex.
  • 9.9. Bibliography.
• 10. Molecular genetics.
  • 10.1. DNA as hereditary material.
  • 10.2. DNA replication.
    • 10.2.1. The need for DNA replication.
    • 10.2.2. First hypotheses about DNA duplication.
    • 10.2.3. Meselson and Stahl experiment.
    • 10.2.4. The sense of growth of the new strands.
    • 10.2.5. Mechanism of DNA replication.
      • 10.2.5.1. Replication in prokaryotes.
      • 10.2.5.2. Replication in eukayotes.
    • 10.2.6. Error correction.
    • 10.2.7. Enzymes involved in replication.
  • 10.3. Gene concept.
  • 10.4. "One gene-one enzyme" theory.
  • 10.5. Transcription.
    • 10.5.1. Mechanism of transcription.
      • 10.5.1.1. Transcripcion in prokariotes.
      • 10.5.1.2. Eukaruotic transcription.
  • 10.6. Translation or protein biosynthesis.
    • 10.6.1. The genetic code.
    • 10.6.2. Mechanism or translation of RNA o proteins.
      • 10.6.2.1. Translation in eukaryotes.
  • 10.7. Regulation of gene expression.
  • 10.8. Bibliography.
• 11. Genetics and evolution.
  • 11.1. Mutations.
  • 11.2. Types of mutations.
    • 11.2.1. Gene or point mutation.
    • 11.2.2. Chromosomal or structural mutation.
    • 11.2.3. Mutation at the genomic level.
  • 11.3. Causes of mutations.
  • 11.4. Evolutionary implications of mutations.
  • 11.5. Metabolic implications of mutations.
  • 11.6. Bibliography.
• 12. Microbiology and biotechnology.
  • 12.1. Microbiology.
  • 12.2. Viruses.
    • 12.2.1. Viral morphology.
    • 12.2.2. Viral physiology.
      • 12.2.2.1. Lytic cycle.
      • 12.2.2.2. Lysogenic cycle.
      • 12.2.2.3. Cycles of viruses of special interest.
        • 12.2.2.3.1. Flu virus life cycle.
        • 12.2.2.3.2. Life cycle of the AIDS virus.
  • 12.3. Other acellular forms.
    • 12.3.1. Viroids.
    • 12.3.2. Prions.
  • 12.4. Biotechnology.
  • 12.5. Bibliography.
• 13. Inmunology.
• 13.1. Infection concept.
• 13.2. Defense mechanisms against infections.
  • 13.2.1. Nospecific mechanisms.
    • 13.2.1.1. Primary barriers:external defenses.
    • 13.2.1.2. Secondary barriers: internal defenses.
  • 13.2.2. Specific mechanisms.
• 13.3. Immunity and immune system.
  • 13.3.1. Components of the immune system.
  • 13.3.2. Concept and nature of antigens.
• 13.4. The immune response.
  • 13.4.1. Humoral immune response: the antibodies.
    • 13.4.1.1. Antibody-producing cells: B lymphocytes.
    • 13.4.1.2. Antibodies.
      • 13.4.1.2.1. Types of antibodies.
      • 13.4.1.2.2. Antigen-antibody reaction.
    • 13.4.1.3. Immune memory: primary and secondary responses.
  • 13.4.2. Cellular immune response: T lymphocytes.
• 13.5. Types of immunity.
  • 13.5.1. Natural immunity.
  • 13.5.2. Artificial immuntity
• 13.6. Immune system disorders.
  • 13.6.1. Autoimmunity.
  • 13.6.2. Hypersensitivity.
  • 13.6.3. Immunodeficienty.
  • 13.6.4. Transplants and the phenomenon of rejections.
• 13.7. Bibliography.